p b f v m t d th dh n l k g h s r w u a i y o e au ai oi eu * iueo + V are multi-syllabic (except oi and eu): a-ti-e-var * voiced stops only in combination with liquids or nasals, except d, and g and b regularly occur followed by 'u' and sometimes 'i'. * vowels may be long or short; long, closed syllables forbidden, except with diphthongs; C(w/y) doesn't shorten previous vowels, though. * -h finally or before another C is /x/ or /h/ * - V tmnlrsh # * # ptkfv,th,dh,mnlrhswy V - * #/V s ptkf,th,lrnm V - * - V mnlrs C V - * - V ptkbdgmnlrs mnlrswy V - (so, anta and atna allowed both) * - V f,th + ptk,nlmrs V - * ptkmnlrs may geminate * break illegal c clusters with -e- * accent penult if that long or closed (or 2 syll word), else antepenult * BUT: some substantives with *long vowels* and a final consonant to end often accent final syllable : aDÁR. These are marked in the vocabulary with a final /, adár/, to indicate the loss of an original final vowel * compounds the final element of the compound, which gives accent final when monosyllables are the last element: eyalKÁR MORPHOPHONEMICS (mostly in derivations) * pb + tk > f + C- (ap + to > afto) (but, similar C geminate: atto) * td + p k > th + C- (at + ká > athká) * kg + pt > h + C- (ag + to > ahto) * n + r > dr * l + r > dr (il + ri > idri) * m + r > br ---------------------------------------------------------------------- SUBSTANTIVES * nouns and adjectives agree in case and number; declension is the same * may end in -a, -e, -o, some adjectives in -i; or consonant - those use -i- for euphony * no gender, but distinction in animacy for forming plurals forest tree N. - -l sara saral las lasil A. -m -lem saram saralem lasim lasilem G. -ya -lya saraya saralya lasya lasilya D. -ri -dri sarari saradri lasiri lasidri L. -t -let sarat saralet lasit lasilet Abl. -pe -lpe sarape saralpe lasipe lasilpe Ad. -n -len saran saralen lasin lasilen ---------------------------------------------------------------------- PRONOUNS Independent Possessive 1. anye ámil ani ami 2. ente étil ati alti 3. o ol i oli (D. odri) The 3rd persons are really demonstrative pronouns; they are primarily used in cases other than the nominative. pers.thing sort/kind place time reason manner this/that o - - - - - this u wie uvá wíth (w)asi olián that te tie tevá títh tasi tolián no lu lie lavá líth lasi lolián some/any aisa aisie aisavá aisíth aisasi aisolián which ra rie ravá ríth rasi rolián relative owa owie owavá owíth owasi owolián The person, sort, time and place correlatives may all take the positional case endings: raván "whither?", ravápe "whence." ---------------------------------------------------------------------- VERBS * stems usually end in a single consonant (a few vowel stems) * conjugations in -a, stems in -i ??? * intransitive endings signify either middle or passive; only context will tell; agent of passive in ablative: "ope atinwa" "I was seen by him." Transitive Intransitive 1. -n -me -nwa -mma atin atime atinwa atimma 2. -t -lte -twa -tta atit atilte atitwa atitta 3. - -r -´wa -rwa ati atir atíwa atirwa 2i. -ti -lti -toi -ttoi Imperatives 3i. -si -ri -soi -roi Inf: -di -diwe Part: -s -was * simple past/aorist : -i- * imperfect : -ie- (atie, atiéwa) * present : -ya- * future : -uva- (atuváwa) * future punctual : -uvi-, -ivi- * perfect : -ak- (atakin, atakyan, !! atakivin !!) * Subjunctive : -só- (atyasór, atisomma, atakyasón) * Conjunctive : -ttó- (atyattór, atittomma, atakyattón) (for both of these the -ó- shortens before heavy endings: atyattomma) * Optative : -mba- (atyambar, atimbamma, atakyamban) Verbal Case Cross-referencing * none of the cross-reference prefexes are ever accented * The simple past, perfects and fut.punctual for many verbs will take the prefix an-, especially when a positional case is used in the sentence: om sarat en anatin "I saw him in the forest" om anatin "I saw him" om atin "I saw him" om sarat en anatakyat ai? "Have you seen him in the forest?" anerkakya "He has gone" * any verb with a dative phrase may take either si- or ty- prefix. om dákuvan "I will give it." om enteri sidákuvan "I will give it to you. om enteri sarat en ansidákin "I gave it to you in the forest." * si-/ty- are most common in simple past and perfect verbs, but may be used in any tense, unlike an- * ty- + i- > si- * a locative phrase may be cross-referenced by an-, especially when other position cases are in play. When just a locative is used, and especially when attention is being drawn to it, li-/lay- is used. (lay- is used before i-, and sometimes other vowels, especially when front; otherwise use li-). om sarat en liatin "I saw him in the forest." * li-/las- drives out all other cross references, except sometimes si-/ty- when those have become fundamental to an idiom. * One can omit arguments, and just use "ansidákakyan," leaving the rest to implication or assumed knowledge. * There are a few verbs which always take si-/ty-, usually idiomatic forms of particular verbs ---------------------------------------------------------------------- DERIVATION * adverbs: -án * V->N (verbal noun; the action): -e ate "seeing" * V/Adj->N (medium, object, result): -to atto "sight" (object or ability) kotto "stupidity", nefto "snow" * V/Adj->N (for 2 consonant stems): -on erkon "way, path" * N->V (denominative verbs): -an túman- "to drum" * N->Adj: -i lasi "tree-like", sari "foresty" * -ness (Adj -> N) : -io kótio "stupidity" * having: -(a)ka kemtaka -(a)ka + -as > -(a)kas : kemtakas * -less: -var, -evar atevar "blind" * -less: also, -ievar atievar "blind" * -able, suitable or worthy of X-ing: -ko ethko "listenable" * augmentive: -úm- (takes accent for substantives) * diminutive (n, adj): -(i)htat, -itte * -ihtat is usually used with names, people and pets/domesticated animals, -itte for things. * diminutive (v, adj): -yait- * causative: -ís- * nomina agentis: -as; -(i)me * may go n. or adj., too: kótas, "nit-wit" * profession: -anse * place: -owa * time: * intensive: -N-em (homorganic nasal infix if possible, suffix -em-) this is mostly in verbal derivations: at > AnTem "to know"; also in adjectives: kót > kontem "blindingly dumb" COMPOUNDS ---------------------------------------------------------------------- SYNTAX * Word order is quite flexible, but defaults are: * SOV * Adj N, Adv V/Adj VOICE * Verbs whose meaning is intrinsically intransitive generally take transitive endings. When the intransitive endings are used, the implication is often of a passive causative: erkíwa "she was made to go." This is fairly subtle, so the difference in meaning between 'erkyan' and 'erkyanwa' may not always be clear. MOOD * TENSE & ASPECT * The aorist is often used where English would expect a present: A: Raván erkya? Where is he going? B: Mé antemin. I don't know. In this case the puctuality of the aspect is being emphasized, rather than the tense. PARTICLES * May be connecting or discourse particles * typically postpositive enclitics, like to be early in sentence * The ones which elide the final vowel often actually lengthen the following vowel, though this is not written: mé w' antemyan == * má w' ántemyan (or "wa-antemyan") This assimilation need not be written: mé we antemyan. * Conjunctive particles: * we, w' "and; but" - main connecting particle, very common * ru "or" - vel and aut both * ás "consequently, naturally, of course" - indicates a logical or nomral progression; sometimes quite subtle * we ás - somewhat emphatic connection, "naturally, and of course;" may be ironic * ní; nyás, nás "for" * Discourse particles: * ka - calls attention to, highlights word/phrase * fi "perhaps, maybe; somewhat" - adds a mild sense of doubt * ne, n' - "indeed, truly, in fact." om ka adárim mé ne anatit ayam? Did you really not see this man? * nen, nén - stronger versions of ne * mi, min - like 'ka', but carries a tone of affection for the emphasized word, or cuteness. Sometimes acts like ne, or may combine with it: min. olem mi sráthilti "Look at them!" (Aren't they cute?!) * tál - "so it seems, it appears, in my opinion/experience, for me;" the speaker limits knowledge to himself * yau - statement is a reported fact, the speaker has no direct knowledge of * yau fi - statement is reported fact about which speaker is dubious or speaker distrusts source * yau nén - incredulous, rhetorical, usually repeating what someone else has said dubiously, also 'yau fi nén' COMPLEX SENTENCES EXAMPLES antemyadi mé tomyan I don't want to know mé tomyan antemyadi " mé tomyan antemidi " ál antemyadi tomyan I want not to know antemyadi tomyan I want to know (most common) antemyattó tomyan I want him to know o adár antemyattó tomyan I want this man to know o adár ál antemyattó tomyan I want this man not to know tomyan ál o adár atemyattó " ---------------------------------------------------------------------- VOCABULARY adár/ : man ai, aya : question marker, generally sentence final ayam : often used in negative questions ál : "no, not" in all moods except indicative and strong imperatives anha : anche anhi ás : discourse particle, "consequently, naturally, of course" at- : see antem- : to know (a fact; by experience) aul : 10 dák- : to give dahto : gift dúl : large, big ede : 3 éd : to listen to en : in erk- : go, come eyal : day fol : 8 fot : 8 h- : "to be" har : 1 ive : 4 ka : discourse particle kár : book eyalkár - diary kemte : caunome; standing stone kos : 5 kót : stupid, dumb las : tree lét- : to begin, to start lóma : night mada : Mada mán : very, much(ly), a great deal mas : word más : mi : discourse particle, like 'ka', but affectionate, cute or diminutive na : post.pos. "indeed, truly, in fact" ní, nás : post.pos. "for" nil : 2 mé : no, not nep- : to snow, nefto : snow pel- : to hear ran- : to write rith : 9 ru : postpostitive particle, "or"; may introduce indirect questions, "whether" sap : 7 sara : forest séth- : sifre : 0 sráth- : look at; view sta : tom- : to want tonto : desire, want túm : drum wád- : to know, to understand we : post.pos. "and; but" wehe : 6 weyal : today (< u eyal) To be: Except for the present, which is 0 (zero), the verb to be is based of the stem h-: 'hin' "I was." "I am" is just 'yan.' Present tense vowel may be long when the verb is emphasized. So, all possibilities: yan, yán yamme yat, yát yalte ya, yá yar, yár Often the other tenses drop the h-, but '*i' for "he/she/it was" is avoided. 0 sifre 1 har 2 nil 3 ede 4 ive 5 kos 6 wehe 7 sap 8 fol, fot 9 rith 10 aul 11 12 20 nilul 21 nilul-har 30 edul 40 ivul 100 200 1000 #